Introduction
One of the most pressing issues facing American universities is the number of students who fail to graduate (Creighton, 2006). Graduation statistics reveal that approximately 26% of students who enroll as freshman do not re-enroll as sophomores (The Chronicle of Higher Education, 2005); and further, approximately 52% of students who entered college actually completed their programs after 5 years (American College Test [ACT], 2002). In spite of all the programs and services to help retain students, according to a government source, only 50% of those who enter higher education actually earn a bachelor’s degree (U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census Digest of Educational Statistics (2004).

Though these alarming figures come from undergraduate programs, equally alarming figures surface from within doctoral programs within the fields of education. Smallwood (2004) poignantly indicated the attrition rate in doctoral programs could be as high as 50%. There is some evidence (Lage-Otera, 2006) suggesting women and minorities are leaving their doctoral programs in even higher numbers.

This article will examine the historical framework of mentoring within higher education, the importance of mentoring African American Women doctoral students, and provide recommendations for institutions attempting to improve the graduation rates of African American Women.

Historical Review of Mentoring and Advising

Mentoring began in ancient Greek methodology. Around 1200 B.C. Odysseus was leaving for the siege of Troy when he appointed his friend, Mentor, to be a surrogate father to his son, Telemachus. Historical records show that skills, culture, and values in preparation for manhood were learned in this paired relationship (Nefstead & Nefstead, 2005). In modern times, the concept of mentoring has found application in virtually every forum of learning. In academia, a mentor is often used synonymously with faculty advisor. A fundamental difference between mentoring and advising is more than advising; mentoring is a personal, as well as, professional relationship. Eric Parsloe of the Oxford School of Coaching & Mentoring states that "Mentoring is to support and encourage people to manage their own learning in order that they may maximize their potential, develop their skills, improve their performance and become the person they want to be."

In the broadest sense, a mentor is someone who takes a special interest in helping another person develop into a successful professional. Some students, particularly those working in large laboratories and institutions, find it difficult to develop a close relationship with their faculty advisor or laboratory director. They might have to find their mentor elsewhere—perhaps a faculty member at another institution, a wise friend, a peer, or another person with similar experience who offers continuing guidance and support.

The Council of Graduate Schools (1995) cites Morris Zelditch’s useful summary of a mentor’s multiple roles: “Mentors are advisors, people with career experience willing to share their knowledge; supporters, people who give emotional and moral encouragement; tutors, people who give specific feedback on one’s performance; masters, in the sense of employers to whom one is apprenticed; sponsors, sources of information about and aid in obtaining opportunities; models, of identity, of the kind of person one should be to be an academic.”
Creighton, Parks, & Creighton (2006) suggests that good mentoring occurs through continuous planning, practicing, and evaluating. The authors postulate the importance of doctoral programs providing a comprehensive approach to mentoring their students. Programs that plan, practice, and evaluate continuously have become exemplar in their retention and graduation rates.

Mentoring African American Women Doctoral Students

Mentoring and networking can help African American women doctoral students (and other faculty) to reduce some of the dilemmas and pressures of academe (Granger, 1993; Locke, 1997; Moses, 1997; Sorcinelli, 2000; Turner & Myers, 2000). Many African American women cite having a mentor as key to their career development” (Locke, 1997, p. 345). Mentoring programs and networking activities include discipline-based meetings, panel discussions and receptions, conferences, and other forums for faculty to express their concerns, and professional development workshops (Fields, 1996; Granger, 1993).

Some African American women doctoral students feel more comfortable with a mentor who is also an African American woman, this presents an opportunity to network with women who look like them, who may share the same interests, and who more likely have dealt with similar dilemmas in academe (Fields, 1996; Graves, 1990; Peterson, 1990).

However some literature suggests that it does not matter whether the mentor is white, African American, or a member of some other minority group (Fields, 1996; Granger, 1993; Johnsrud, 1993; Locke, 1997; Moses, 1997), nor does it matter whether the mentor is a man or a woman. What does matter is that African American women doctoral students have a mentor within their institutions (and preferably within their departments) who are supportive, who view minority issues as important and who will shed some light on and explain the tenure process clearly (Fields, 1996; Granger, 1993; Johnsrud, 1993; Locke, 1997; Moses, 1997).

In a study conducted by Woods (2001), she states that African American women doctoral students struggle to establish mentoring relationships. This struggle often deters their motivation to complete their doctoral program. African American women doctoral students in the study also confirmed the importance of having an environment that was supportive of their research interest and fostered a sense of educational advancement.

Recommendations

The following recommendations serve to guide institutions and doctoral programs in successfully graduating their African American Women students. Although some recommendations are cross-cultural, they are intended to provide guidance and direction for institutions who strive to be exemplar in their graduation, scholarship, and teachings of African American Women doctoral students.

1. Orientation. Conduct an orientation that connects African American Women doctoral students with other doctoral students of color. During the orientation, allow the students to engage in conversations that explore their experiences within the department, program and overall institution. It is also important to include faculty who are supportive of the success of students of color.
2. Supportive Environment. Having a supportive environment is key to the success of African American doctoral students in their programs. This recommendation works in tandem with #1 and #3. Boyle and Boice (1998) found exemplary programs to include opportunities for graduate students to socialize with both faculty and more advanced students. These social gatherings provide opportunities for students and faculty to talk informally. Doctoral students closer to the completion of their degree can provide equally important information to new doctoral students as they contemplate the selection of a research or dissertation advisor.
3. Faculty. Faculty within programs and departments may need to attend professional development workshops/trainings on how to advise, mentor, and support their students. Although faculty may be disenchanted by such a workshop, it is important for the success of their programs.
4. Research. More research is necessary that focuses on the African American Women doctoral students. Literature on mentoring has centered mostly on undergraduate students and junior faculty. Much less is available in the form of empirical studies devoted to doctoral programs and the mentoring of doctoral students. Nettles and Millett (2006), in their longitudinal study of graduate education (1996-2006), expressed surprise about the limited attention scholars and researchers have given to studying doctoral education. They found the few existing studies to focus mostly on either the front-end of doctoral study (GRE takers) or date from the back-end (earned doctorates).
5. Institutions. Institutions should incorporate mentoring and advising in the criteria used for appraisals of faculty performance, including evaluations for the purposes of promotion and tenure. Faculties at research-oriented institutions are often rewarded for good research but seldom for good mentoring. Unless good mentoring is embedded in institutional systems of rewards and promotions, it is unfair to expect faculty members to assign high priority to good mentoring.

Conclusion

According to a report by the Council of Graduate Schools (1995), “Universities, graduate schools, and departments all play prominent parts in fostering mentorship among faculty members.” These relationships will improve the retention of not only African American Women doctoral students, but all students of color.

Creighton, Parks, & Creighton (in press) suggests that mentoring is difficult work and involves planning, practice, teaching, learning, and evaluation and thus should be viewed as pedagogy in itself. Individual faculty members usually do not acquire effective mentoring skills by themselves and rarely do universities and departments recognize or reward such behavior.

This article should not be perceived as a concrete approach to mentoring African American Women doctoral students, but as a discussion piece to begin the necessary conversations within programs that aim to increase their graduation and retention rates of African American doctoral students and all students of color. The value of mentoring at every level is in part a function of institutional support. Institutions have a significant investment in promoting successful mentoring at the undergraduate, graduate, postdoctoral, and junior-faculty levels. Improved mentoring is likely to enhance students’ educational experience, morale, career planning and placement, and professional competence.

References

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About the Authors

Michele D. Smith, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor, Graduate School of Education
Program Director, Teachers CHOICE Early Completion Option Program
Alliant International University, Sacramento, California

Dr. Michele D. Smith serves as an Assistant Professor in the Graduate School of Education and as the Program Director for the Teachers CHOICE Early Completion Option Program, Sacramento Campus for Alliant International University. The Early Completion Option intern program makes it possible for highly gifted achievers and those with teaching or education experience to demonstrate pedagogical skills and obtain a teaching credential in an accelerated program. In this position, Dr. Smith provides direction for the field supervision and mentoring of interns; serves as faculty advisor for ECO; serves as a liaison between Alliant and area school districts; assures interface & collaboration with the mentors and instructors; and monitors the effectiveness of the ECO instruction.

Dr. Smith holds an interdisciplinary doctoral degree in Counseling, Sports Administration, and Higher Education with a focus of Collegiate Teaching from Ohio University, Athens, Ohio. She also earned a master’s degree from Ohio University and a bachelor’s degree from Creighton University in Omaha, Nebraska.

Tyjaun A. Lee, Ph.D.
Associate Vice President of Enrollment Management & Student Services
Tidewater Community College, South Hampton Roads, Virginia

Dr. Tyjaun A. Lee serves as the Associate Vice President of Enrollment Management & Student Services at Tidewater Community College, in South Hampton Roads Virginia. In this position, Dr. Lee provides strategic college-wide leadership and operational oversight for all activities related to enrollment and student services, ensuring consistency, currency, responsiveness and excellence in those departments. Dr. Lee’s position is integral to TCC’s new model for student services in which expanded self-service options for students in an online environment go hand-in-hand with personalized service at each campus

Dr. Lee holds a doctoral degree in Educational Leadership from Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, where she also earned a master of education and bachelor’s degrees.